Special Administrative Measures

Special administrative measures (SAMs) refers to the special rules that are applied to certain inmates especially those associated with violence, national security and terrorism. These types of inmates are considered to be very dangerous. These measures include monitoring and limiting an inmate’s telephone calls and any form of correspondence, restricting an inmate’s interview with the press, putting the inmate in isolation, and limiting the inmate’s privilege to receive visitors (Martin, 2004). These measures are put in place to protect people from serious bodily harm or death especially if the victims are associated with terrorism or acts of violence (Martin, 2004). In case the inmate is associated with national security, these measures are put in place to prevent the inmates from disclosing classified information (Martin, 2004). Generally, such inmates have increased limitations and are under greater scrutiny compared to other inmates. The measures are so strict that in most circumstances the communications between the inmates and their attorneys are monitored in case the attorneys are used by the inmates to communicate with other criminals (Martin, 2004). The decision to place an inmate under special administrative measures is arrived at following a written request from the Attorney General to the director of Bureau of Prisons following advice by the intelligence agencies (Martin, 2004). There are several functions of SAMs and these can be classified as overt and covert purposes. The overt purposes relate to protection of the general public from harm by restricting an inmate’s contact with the outside world which is an avenue that the inmate can use to perpetrate violence or terrorism. One of the covert purposes is use of the monitored information for investigative purposes for example if an inmate is directing terrorism from the cell (Martin, 2004). Another covert purpose is to protect the public from anxiety which can result following disclosure of information about national security.

Barn Burning Essay

William Faulkner’s short story, â€Å"Barn Burning,† can be interpreted as a coming of age story. The main character, Sarty, is a young boy who is forced to choose between following morals and supporting his father. Throughout the text the reader sees that he is torn between the two, not old enough to put his foot down and say no, but not young enough to continue on blissfully unaware. Right from the beginning paragraph, Sarty is sitting in the back of the Justice of Peace’s court. Faulkner paints this picture of the little boy â€Å"crouched on his nail keg at the back of the crowded room† (Faulkner 493). From this simple sentence, the reader sees Sarty as a weak, unimportant character in the story. His father is accused of burning an â€Å"enemy’s† barn. â€Å"Our enemy he thought in that despair; ourn! Mine and hisn both! He’s my father! † (Faulkner 493). This sentence indicates that the 10 year old boy knows to support his blood relations. However, when he is called to the Justice he thinks, â€Å"He aims for me to lie†¦ and I will have to do it,† (Faulkner 494) which indicates that the boy knows the truth, and even though to support his father would be lying, that’s what he needs to do. He continues to call the neighbor an enemy in his head, but when it comes to being questioned he freezes up. From this moment the reader begins to experience the battle inside Sarty’s head that continues throughout the story. That is, the battle between right and wrong, family or betrayal. In that moment of frozen nerves, Sarty feels, â€Å"As if he had swung outward at the end of a grape vine, over a ravine, and at the top of the swing had been caught in a prolonged instant of mesmerized gravity, weightless in time. (Faulkner 494. ) This quote holds an abundance of symbolism abot the position Sarty was put in. He was momentarily stuck in this weightless, timeless, unknowing moment, swung out over a ravine suggesting that if he let go, if he give in to his own morals, he could be flung into a world of pain. The grapevine is a universal symbol of rebirth or new beginning. Every spring, new green shoots spring up along gnarled, twisted old branches like life from death. For Sar ty, resisting his father would be a new beginning. As they walk out of the court, a boy wispers â€Å"Barn burner! † (Faulkner 495), and Sarty jumps at him trying to hit him. This indicates that in the beginning Sarty still sticks to his blood and tries to defend his father. However, we still see indications of the internal battle that Sarty is fighting throughout the story. Sarty then portrays independence towards his mother when she is trying to pamper his wounds and wash off the blood. He refuses to admit that it hurts, and tells his mother, â€Å"I’ll wash it to-night†¦ Lemme be, I tell you. † (Faulkner 495). It is contradictory that he wants so much to please his father but talks back to his mother in such a way, even when she’s the one trying to help him while his father doesn’t have his best interests at heart. This is an instance of a childish need to gain approval. He knows that his mother cares about him and approves of most of his actions, but it is his father that he knows he has to work for. His father wants him to grow up, and to be a man. Abner tells his son, â€Å"You’re getting to be a man. You got to learn. You got to learn to stick to your own blood or you ain’t going to have any blood to stick to you. (Faulkner 496). Sarty’s dad believes that growing up means supporting your family. However, in truth, if Sarty were to â€Å"grow up† he would realize that his father’s actions were immoral and stand up to him. These words make an impact on Sarty, nonetheless, because the next day, when they arrive at their new house and his f ather drags him away, the narrator remarks, â€Å"A week ago – or before last night, that is – he would have asked where they were going, but not now. † (Faulkner 496). A week ago a naive, ignorant Sarty would have questioned his father. But after their talk he gained a new perspective, not quite becoming independent or growing up, but rather a better understanding of discretion. Before they even reach the house, Sarty points out the oak and cedar trees, both symbolic of strength and endurance. Also, the honeysuckle and roses which line the gate symbolise love and caring. When they get to the entrance, they are greeted by a big gate with pillars and a long drive leading up to the coloumed pillars of the manor. This demonstrates the wealth and prestige of the manor. When Sarty sees the house he instantly thinks of a â€Å"courthouse. He forgets about the terror and despair his father has caused him and they are replaced by â€Å"a surge of peace and joy whose reason he could not have thought into words. † (Faulkner 497). The comfort that Sarty finds in this authoritative building is predictive of his resistance to his father later on. Next Major de Spain takes Abner to the local courthouse after he refuses to pay the twenty bushels of corn he was required to provide. The court decides to lower the amount to ten bushels, which is an extremely reasonable price to pay for ruining a rug of such value. However, as they are leaving, Sarty says to his father â€Å"He won’t git no ten bushels neither. He won’t git one. We’ll†¦ † (Faulkner 502). Not only is he passionately taking his father’s side in this quote, but he also refers to himself and Abner as â€Å"We,† suggesting a stronger emotional bond in this moment. None of this matters once they get home, and Abner sends Sarty out to the varn to get the can of oil. Sarty knows what his father is going to do, and contemplates running away, but he tells himself he can’t. Then, when Abner forces Sarty’s mother to hold him down to prevent Sarty from running away, the whole scene changes. I believe this is the moment when Sarty realizes how his father has misused him and that he has the ability to be independent. So, he struggles away from his mother and when he bursts through the front door of the glowing manor he babbles to the â€Å"white man† about the barn. During the course of this entire scene Sarty never stops running. He runs away from not only his childhood subordination, but also the hopeless dependance of his mother, the laziness of his sisters, and the careless mindset of his brother. He runs away from all the negativity, and yet when all alone, Sarty thinks, â€Å"He was brave!†¦ e was! He was in the war! He was in Colonel Sartoris’ cav’ry! † (Faulkner 505). Still blindly defending his father, and yet, without realizing it, he falls asleep. At the approach of dawn, and approach of a new day, Sarty has changed once more. He is free of his blood restraints. â€Å"He went down on down the hill, toward the dark woods within which the liquid silver voices of the birds called unceasing – the rapid and urgent beating of the urgent and quiring heart of the late spring night. He did not look back. † (Faulkner 505).

Equal Protection in Criminal Punishment

Equal Protection in Criminal Punishment The 14th Amendment articulates that no State shall â€Å"deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws† (Sullivan and Gunther 486). It is nearly impossible though, for the equal treatment of all persons, since every law affects people differently. â€Å"This command cannot literally require equal treatment of all persons, since almost all laws classify in some way, by imposing burdens on or granting benefits to some people and not others† (Sullivan and Gunther 486).The Equal Protection Clause was meant for the application of all laws equally, not necessarily equal treatment of all people. There is a great difference in the two. The people most adversely affected by these iniquitous laws are mainly minorities and those from low socio-economic groups. The inequality in sentencings of the criminals is often the focal point of legal discussion. The most debatable topic when it comes to criminal punishment is the area surrounding the death penalty. It is often given unjustly and undeservingly to minorities.Race is the most controversial and monumental factor in determining the length and severity of a criminal’s punishment. Racial discrimination has been evident in our legal system in the past and continues to remain present to this day. Our court system has deprived minorities of their rights throughout the years. In Strauder v. West Virginia, the State excluded blacks from the jury. The State law stated that â€Å"all white male persons who are twenty-one years of age and who are citizens of this State shall be liable to serve as jurors† (Sullivan and Gunther 487).A black man facing trial in the 1800’s against an all white jury doesn’t stand a chance. The Court found that to deny citizen participation in the administration of justice solely on racial grounds â€Å"is practically a brand upon them, affixed by law; an assertion of their inferiority, and a stimulant to that race prejudice which is an impediment to securing to individuals of the race that equal justice which the law aims to secure to all others† (Sullivan and Gunther 487). This case was a major turning point in racial discrimination in our legal system.Minorities were starting to be seen as people, and not just objects. But at this time, we were still far from our goal of total equality among all people. In a more recent case, Swain v. Alabama, the Court held that a defendant in a criminal case is not constitutionally allowed to a balanced number of his race on the trial jury or the jury panel. There is no evidence in this case that the jury selection committee applied different jury selection standards as between blacks and whites (Swain v. Alabama, 380 U. S. 209, 1965). There may not be evidence, but it is quite obvious that there is an inequality here.How can a man facing a death penalty be put up against an all white jury during a time of racial tension? A f lawed system of selection of jury panels is not comparable to intended racial discrimination (Swain v. Alabama, 380 U. S. 209, 1965). Although the selection of an all white jury was not sought out, society during this time was racially divided. The principle announced in Strauder v. West Virginia, that a State denies a black defendant equal protection when it puts him on trial before a jury from which members of his race have been purposefully excluded, was reaffirmed in Batson v.Kentucky (Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U. S. 84). The Equal Protection Clause assures the defendant that the State will not prohibit members of his race from the jury venire on account of race, or on the inaccurate assumption that members of his race as a group are not eligible to serve as jurors. By denying a person participation in jury duty on the basis of his race, the State also unconstitutionally discriminates against the barred juror (Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U. S. 85). This inequality in the selection of jurors has damaged confidence in our legal system.The lack of confidence has in turn caused inequality in the sentencing of criminals, mostly dealing with minorities. There is no doubt that minorities receive harsher and longer sentences. â€Å"As of June 1998, only seven white men had been executed in the United States for killing black victims. In the same 1976-1998 period, 115 black men were executed for killing white victims† (Cole 132). These numbers prove that blacks have historically received harsher treatments than whites. This connects to the selection of juries. Juries have a great affect on the sentencing of criminals.A predominantly white jury is more than likely to convict a black man, than a predominantly black jury is. â€Å"Juries remain predominantly white in most of the country, and apparently their sympathies lie more strongly with white than black victims† (Cole 133). A large study conducted by Professors David Baldus, George Woodworth, and Charles Pulaski, showed that there was a large disparity in the racial breakdown of the death penalty. They found that defendants charged with killing white victims received the death penalty eleven times more often than defendants charged with killing black victims (Cole 133).The Equal Protection Clause was set out to protect from this indifference, but this clearly shows that it has not done so. Equal treatment of all people has yet to be achieved today and racial inequality is still ever-present. Criminal sentencing when it comes to blacks and whites is vastly different and unjust. The disproportion of sentences given to blacks and whites in dealing with drugs is ridiculous. First of all, the gap in sentencing when it comes to crack cocaine and powder cocaine is too big.Under federal sentencing guidelines, a small-time crack dealer caught selling 5 grams of crack receives the same prison sentence as a large-scale powder cocaine dealer convicted of distributing 500 grams of powder cocaine (Cole 142). To me, powder cocaine is just as dangerous and addicting as crack cocaine. The large gap in sentencings for the two offenses places a higher value on the danger level of crack, when in all actuality they are on the same level. The increase in policing of the low-level crack offenders has caused us to neglect the big drug traffickers.As it is, we already do not have enough federal law enforcement to police all the drug dealers out there. By paying more attention to the people with small amounts of crack cocaine, we are letting others get by with more powdered cocaine. This puts more powdered cocaine on the streets, because dealers are unafraid to receive the consequences since the pay-off to conviction rate is much more in their favor. An offender would receive a mandatory minimum of 10 years if they were to get caught with 5,000 grams of powdered cocaine, while a person would receive the same sentence for being caught with only 50 grams of crack cocaine.Crack cocaine is the only drug that carries a mandatory prison sentence for a first-time possession offense. A person convicted in federal court of simple possession of 5 grams of crack is subject to a mandatory five-year prison term while a person convicted of possessing 5 grams of powder will probably receive a probation sentence. To solve this problem, we need to bridge the gap between the two sentencings. Crack cocaine is the poor man’s powdered cocaine. The popularity of crack cocaine was associated with its cheap price, which for the first time made cocaine available to a wider economic class (thesentencingproject. rg). More than often, the biggest users of crack cocaine are people of lower social status. This in turn implicates that more crack cocaine users are African Americans. As a result of this, blacks are receiving more prison time when it comes to crack cocaine. African Americans make up one-third of crack cocaine users, with the other two-thirds being white and Hispanic (The D efenders Online). About 90 percent of federal crack cocaine defendants are black (Cole 142). African American drug defendants have a 20 percent greater chance of being sentenced to prison than white drug defendants (The Sentencing Project).Why is this the case? The legal system inadvertently targets blacks by placing higher sentences on crack cocaine offenses. A considerable racial disparity in prosecutions and imprisonment has endured for too long. Along with disproportionate law enforcement procedures that aim towards blacks, the crack sentencing guidelines have resulted in more than 80 percent of crack cocaine defendants being African American, although in all actuality, a majority of crack offenders are white or Hispanic (The Sentencing Project).With the punishment of crack cocaine so severe for low level offenses, the prison incarceration rate has risen, causing us as taxpayers more money. American prisons and jails house nearly two million people and Blacks face incarceration rates more than six times that of Whites (Schlesinger). The inequality in our justice system has caused more minorities to be locked up, which in result is a financial burden on the American taxpayers. By equalizing the gap in criminal sentencing for all races, we can solve the problems from within our legal system.The racial inequality that is present in our justice system also exists in the sentencing of the death penalty. There seems to be a consistent factor in those on death row. â€Å"Those being executed and awaiting their deaths are no different from those selected for execution in the past: virtually all were poor; about half are members of racial minorities; and the overwhelming majority where sentenced to death for crimes against white victims† (Bright 433). Over time, our legal system has placed a â€Å"small† value of importance on minorities and this was built upon, to where whites did not notice this inequality.There has to be some sort of factor that in fluences why there are more minorities on death row. A possible influence on the situation could be the fact that most prosecutors are white. â€Å"98 percent of all state death penalty state prosecutors are white and in eighteen of the thirty-eight death penalty states, prosecutors are exclusively white† (Free 187). White prosecutors may not knowingly have a racial bias in their head, but it is evident when they are trying to seek the death penalty. State courts were 4. 3 times more likely to sentence those who killed whites than those that killed blacks (Free 185).These same courts were 1. 1 times more likely to black defendants to death than any other defendant of another race (Free 185). While the state prosecutors are pressing for the death penalty, the defendant is supplied with an insufficient lawyer. The jury is more than likely to listen to the more qualified state prosecutor and be persuaded by what he has to say, over the under qualified attorney supplied by the st ate. This has resulted in more successful cases in favor of the state prosecutors. This reoccurring situation is ever-so-present in today’s legal system.Minorities are getting shafted in the American justice system and nothing is being done to prevent this from continuing to happen in the future. ‘All men are created equal†¦ ‘ may be what the Declaration of Independence says, but in all reality, some men receive better treatment than others. The actual reality of the Declaration of Independence is that all free, white, landowning men are created equal. For that reason, inequality has always been present in the United States' legal system and maintains to exist today; though, the inequality currently in the system is not as obvious as what it once was.We have made little progress towards total equality. Anywhere you look in today’s world, you can find some sort of inequality or injustice. I firmly believe we will always have a racial prejudice in the wo rld no matter what, because there will always be the people that can’t get over their racial indifferences. Although we will not fully achieve the goal of racially equality, we can make positive steps forward by first addressing the problems associated with in our justice system. Race is the largest influencing factor in the sentencing of criminals, especially when it comes o dealing with the death penalty. Works Cited Bright, Stephen B. â€Å"Discrimination, Death, and Denial: The Tolerance of Racial Discrimination in Infliction of the Death Penalty. † Santa Clara Law Review Vol. 35 (1995. ): 433. Free Jr. , Marvin D. Racial Issues in Criminal Justice: the Case of African Americans. Westport: Criminal Justice Press, 2004. 185,187. Schlesinger, Traci. â€Å"How Determinate Sentencing Contributed to the Prison Boom: The Failure of Race Neutral Policies†Ã‚  Paper presented at the annual meeting of the The Law and Society Association, Jul 06, 2006. ttp://www. allac ademic. com/meta/p94999_index. html â€Å"Sentencing disparity: Crack Cocaine v Powdered Cocaine. † The Defenders Online. 27 May 2009. 16 Dec. 2009. http://www. thedefendersonline. com/2009/05/27/sentencing-disparity-crack-cocaine-v-powder-cocaine/ Sullivan, Kathleen M. and Gerald Gunther. Constitutional Law: 16th Ed. New York: Foundation Press, 2007. The Sentencing Project: Research and Advocacy for Reform. â€Å"Federal Crack Cocaine Sentencing. † 13 December 2009. http://www. sentencingproject. org/doc/publications/dp_crack_sentencing. pdf

Building Resilient Students and Mediation Term Paper

Building Resilient Students and Mediation - Term Paper Example Resiliency is an innate quality of students. Students are different in terms of their ability to manage stress, keep focus, manage their emotions and their emotional presentations, maintain their self-esteem even in the face of difficulties, etc. The trait of resilience can be determined by a number of factors: Feeling obligated to succeed or maintain one's composure due to one's duties towards family, friends or community; high self-esteem; good stress management techniques; etc. But resilience is also a consequence of someone's environments and social networks. Anyone can snap in an environment that is high-tension, high-conflict and stress-inducing; certainly, it will tax their resources no matter how vast. Conversely, even people with very low stress tolerance can flourish in an environment that controls stress extremely well. Further, even the toughest people are likely to become depressed or stressed out if they don't have a social network to vent to and use for relaxation. Thi s means that educators in their quest to create resilient students have two goals. They have to teach students how to manage stress, but they also have to control the environments that students are in so that they don't have too much stress to manage in the first place. These two are obviously somewhat at odds with each other: Teaching students how to manage stress requires a slight bit of stress in the first place, as an inoculation. Teaching children to manage deadlines, for example, requires giving them deadlines, which can be stressful. There is also clearly a dialectical relationship between these factors. Better stress management can help people build larger networks of friends and relationships which can help with stress management, for example. Someone's innate characteristics help to influence the environment, and someone's environment can help hone, challenge or tax their innate characteristics. Mediation fits into all of this in several ways. â€Å"Peer mediation is a wo nderful and effective strategy for helping students maintain their emotional balance... [E]ducators must set the stage for conflict resolution by setting clear expectations... Teaching students the skills for managing anger... comes next... Students need to know that anger is a normal emotion† (Thomsen, 2002, p. 114). Preparing for mediation, just like mediation itself, involves teaching skills such as really listening, anger management (learning to hold one's tongue long enough to get through a stressful meeting or process that can let someone get what they want), and so forth. Thomsen recommends â€Å"allow[ing] students who are experiencing a conflict to cool off† before attempting peer mediation (Thomsen, 2002, p. 114). â€Å"Remember, the brain and body are in an aroused state, and the rational mind is waiting in the wings†. Students going through the preparation process learn that preparing for mediation, negotiation and conflict resolution is just as impor tant as the process itself. Further, mediation and the process of preparation for it helps students get in touch with their emotions. â€Å"Learning the intrapersonal skill of introspection will serve students long after graduation† (Thomsen, 2002, p. 114). Many adults don't have proper introspection skills, unable to deeply reflect on their thoughts, motivations and beliefs. This drives conflict: It is very hard for someone to avoid making others angry if they don't know their own behavior; similarly, someone trying to appease someone else is

Case Report Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Report - Case Study Example Caritas of Australia is one such non-governmental human services organization for international aid and development. It is one of the biggest humanitarian networks assisting the poorest of the poor worldwide (â€Å"Our Mandate,† n. d). Community development principles and theories can aid such organizations to function in a better way. This report will discuss in detail about the various community development principles, models, and theories that can be incorporated by Caritas to enhance the welfare of the citizens. Caritas renders helping hand to people regardless of their social and political ideologies, religion and, gender (â€Å"Our Mandate,† n. d). Caritas works with great care and compassion towards vulnerable people affected by humanitarian crises or natural disasters and strives hard to help them live a dignified life. At times of adversity, it provides a bonfire of hope for millions of sufferers and at times of peace it contributes to the development of an impartial society (â€Å"Our Mandate,† n. d). It plays a significant role in transforming the vulnerable people to become the architects of their own future through fair treatment and empowerment. Caritas works on rigorous grounds to strengthen the local capacity, improves access to indispensable services, upholds the natural resources, and empowers the poor by creating them opportunities for education and employment (â€Å"Our Mandate,† n. d). Caritas’s underlying principles are based on Catholic Social Teaching (CST) which lays emphasis on human dignity, uninterrupted access to basic resources, people’s participation in their life changing decision making, solidarity in diversity, compassion towards poor, promotion of economic justice, respect for the environment and encouragement of peace all over the world (â€Å"Our Values,† n. d). If community development principles and theories were adopted in addition to the above mentioned CST

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Public Health Leadership - Assignment Example health management’s main objective is to highlight and manage challenges to public health as well as creating and implementing polices to support healthy population development and public health. Public health managers focus on educating the public on health issues, protective healthcare, inspections of health, regular screenings, disease diagnosis and treatment and immediate public health challenges identification. Public health leadership similarly touches on the planning and implementation of the requirements of the wider healthcare, (Donald, 1991). Public health leaders motivate followers, local and regional communities they serve. Similarly, leaders motivate healthcare population and create the objectives of the organization. Systems thinking apply to leadership definition in that it aids leaders to design effective, long-term solutions to public health challenges. Systems thinking provide an increasingly accurate nature of reality to enable leaders to work with natural forces of the systems (public health organization) to attain desired results, (Swayne, 2001). System thinking also encourages leaders to think of challenges and remedies with bird’s eye view. For instance, how might disease prevention appears at the long run in the public health organization, and what anticipated effects it might

Marketing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing - Research Paper Example As Pete, the new Managing Director, points out customers do not find even venue enticing anymore. Before shops are given a fresh look to make them more attractive, it is essential to decide which class of the customers, the company wants to target at – such as business class or young couples who want to pass leisure time or ‘as a local community store working closely with neighbourhood partners as Pete points out. Kotler describes ‘product positioning’ as an essential marketing tool to carve a suitable niche as the company cannot hope to serve all segments of the market simultaneously. Product positioning will also help decide advertising campaign and brand positioning keeping in mind the targeted class of customers using scarce resources most judiciously. As Kotler emphasizes that the company needs to shift its focus on buyer wants rather than its needs. Product differentiation is a key strategy that the Roast needs to adopt in its services, product offerings with numerous varieties in its menu so that customers have several options to choose from. Thus, distinguishing company’s product line from the competition is a key marketing strategy that can play a pivotal role to attract targeted customers. Services also play an important role in differentiating with the competition so the company must focus on it as an integral part of the product differentiation strategy. Employees are considered the biggest asset in any organization and they play a pivotal role in success or failure of any organization (Schofield, 2006).

The American Nation - Christianized or Enlightened Term Paper

The American Nation - Christianized or Enlightened - Term Paper Example In 1776 the colonies that became the United States of America were peopled by groups of individuals possessed with religious fervour who traversed the Atlantic to search for a place where they can practice their faith unadulterated. The migration would be assumed to lessen the religious zeal of the original inhabitants of the colonies and yet the reverse occurred. The religious conviction in America intensified because of the religious resurgence stimulated by the people from across the Atlantic in the midway of the eighteenth century. These religious people were the courageous individuals who will stand against Great Britain in 1776 and oppose the colonial rule. The constituents of the revolutionary generation made significant individual decisions about their deep-seated religious beliefs and fidelity and this pressure mounted within them the ability to make political choices. Even the Founding Fathers of the American Nation commenced on building strong governments carrying the cred ence that religion is a requisite component of a republican institution for its preservation. John W. Thornton summarized that the relationship of politics and religion in America lies on the sermons of the founding fathers. They summoned God in their civil congregations, appealed to the teachers of religion for counsel from the Bible, and identified its principles as the decree of their civic demeanour. The Fathers abhorred the separation of politics and religion. In combats and warfare, they did not push on luck but instead relied on the Word of God etched in their hearts and mind. This moral articulation of the Fathers was the clandestine element that upheld the Republic against its material backdrop, against the enemies’ impenetrable numbers, and against the dominance of England. Nevertheless, despite the religious background of the American nation, developments in England such as the new scientific methods and the initiation of the Parliamentary government were likewise absorbed into the nation’s milieu.  Ã‚  

Why did political parties form in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why did political parties form in the US - Essay Example As Hamilton once said, â€Å"Its not tyranny we desire; its a just, limited, federal government.† The idea had support, but also had a lot of opposition. Many Americans felt that the creation of federal parties would make the U.S. like the U.K. which the hated. It is part of a question that has troubled billions of people since the dawn of time: how should a society construct itself to maximize justice and opportunity? Is a strong central government necessary to do so? There are as many theories as there are grains of sand on the beach, but some ideas over the years have been more popular than others. Some people believe in socialism and that everyone must be made equal by a very powerful central government, the tall cut down and the short pulled up; others believe in a meritocracy where those people who have talent and work hard are rewarded for their labours. These people believe the government should get out of the way. Considering how developed the U.S. is today, the latte r view should prevail. Thomas Hobbes is most famous for his book Leviathan. In it he argued that a â€Å"war of all against all† existed in nature and that people were mostly motivated by fear and distrust and that peoples’ motivations all conflicted with each other. The only way for order to prevail, Hobbes argued, would be through an absolute sovereign or strong central government. While there is certainly some truth to what Hobbes says regarding human beings, other political thinkers have questioned elements of his vision. Indeed there are several flaws in this theory, but it shows us that it is not possible for people to effectively work as a commune. That does not mean we need a dictator to control things, but it does mean we need a strong rule of law to protect individual freedoms. The rule of law is effectively the latter-day sovereign. It serves the same purpose: it protects contracts and business and

C4 Auto Brokers Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

C4 Auto Brokers Business Plan - Essay Example Orange Blossom Trail (near O.B.T. and Colonial Drive). C4 Auto Brokers will purchase vehicles from the auto auctions in Orlando (Mannheim) and Sanford. The business will focus purchasing and re-selling used Asian economy cars, with an emphasis on reliable models (i.e. Toyota Camry, Nissan Sentra, Honda, etc.) Advertising will be focused on Craigslist and Auto Trader. The company initially will only offer cash sales and indirect financing sales (i.e. credit unions, banks, etc.); utilizing a floor plan financing structure. At a later date, once the company’s liquidity has been increased, the business model is cash flow positive, and a lending consultant has been contracted; the company might offer some in-house financing (i.e. buy here, pay here). C4 Auto Brokers will provide an enjoyable car buying experience for its customers by focusing on honesty, professionalism, car quality, and reasonable pricing. Following these values will maximize the customer’ satisfaction and produce an attractive profit for the owners. 1) America’s standard of living is under pressure, with several American families living paycheck to paycheck. This means more American families will fall into the profile of used car purchasers and potential buy here/pay here consumers. In addition, as the value of the dollar erodes (i.e. the cost of living rises), families feel the pressure to reduce all expenses. 1)Â  Short-term and long-term interest rates will likely upsurge in the impending future, as the current operational.

Sourcing and Securing Talent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sourcing and Securing Talent - Essay Example Delta Service has high hopes for this new division and they want a 'contribution mentality' in place. As the newly appointed HR Manager for this company, I have been tasked to take charge of recruiting and sourcing new talents for the new division. Further, to be able to achieve a 'contribution mentality', I have been tasked to present an appropriate reward and recognition system. With thorough research and analysis, here is the report on how the division will be made. Recruitment and Selection At present time, recruiting new talents to a company is very competitive. Bolton (1997) states that there are many companies who invest on recruitment strategies to make sure they have the best talents on board. Employees are essential and compose a big part of the success of the organization and McKenna & Beech (2009) also agrees with this. And with Delta Service's new division, the company will need both new and experienced employees to form the technological innovation team. The team is to be composed of a Technical Director and three Project Officers. For the position of the Technical Director, we are looking for someone who has at least 10 years of experience in the field. For the Project Officer position, I believe it will be best to get a mix of experienced and new talents. This will allow for a good mix of ideas and creativity. In sourcing for these new employees, it is best to do the outsourcing method. By outsourcing employees, it is more probable to get fresh and new ideas for innovative products say Taplin (2007). However, the Technical Director position is an exception. Insourcing method can be done when looking for a Technical director especially if the person has been with the company for years and completely understands the new strategy of Delta Services. He will make a good leader as he knows the direction and appropriate measures to take with his new team. Here are the categories of employees that are best to employ for the new division of the company: It includes the newly graduated students, employees who has at least two years of work experience in the technological field, former employees of technological companies and employees who has at least 8-10 years of experience as a Technical Director. Now, let us proceed with the recruitment process. Again, recruiting new and quality employees can be a difficult task but definitely not impossible. In the recruitment process, we are to take both old and new strategies to make sure we cover all venues of recruitment. Tyson (1997) & Mathis & Jackson (1991) state that traditional methods include posting job advertisements physically and online and these methods are still very effective up to date. We are also taking in new methods of recruitment to reach more people. If we are to target newly graduates, Delta Services can offer attractive mentored internship programs. We can also launch a recruitment team for a job fair. We can post advertisements and job listings in key areas like colle ges, universities and youth centers. Now, the recruitment for the Technical Director will need to be more specific. The executive search for this position can be done by the board members directly or by hiring an executive search company says Geuetal (2009). Most often, it is best to find a person for this position directly. Again, insourcing an employee for this position is a good decision. However, outsourcing for more experienced Technical Directors can

Yes, College is Worth the Money Essay Example for Free

Yes, College is Worth the Money Essay According to College Board, higher earning potential is number one when it comes to benefits of going to college. The median earnings of bachelors degree recipients working full-time year-round in 2008 were $55,700. (Hardy) A lot of current college students say that college is not worth the money, but they are still in college because they know without some type of degree it is going to be difficult to be financially stable and career ready but along with that they will learn some sort of responsibility. To start off, considering the fact that no one wants to struggle and everyone wants to be financially stable a college degree is required. With a college degree you are not always guaranteed a job as soon as you graduate but when you do get in your career field you will always be paid more than a person who just has a high school diploma. On average, the salary given to a person with a with a four year degree is approximately 45,000 dollars verses a lower income coming from someone with just a high school diploma. Studies show that those holding bachelor’s degree will earn about 2.2million dollars in a lifetime and those with a masters, doctorial and professional degrees will earn about 2.67 million, 3.25million and 3.65 million dollars in a lifetime. So, furthering your education will determine you financial stability. Daughtry2 Being career ready is very important before going out in to you designated career field. Going to college will help you become career ready both academically, socially and hands on. Of course coming toschool doing book work is a necessity. Also, you are going to have most likely take courses that are not related to your career and as well as the ones that are your focus. But, all of the course you take will help you in the long run somehow or another, even if it looks pointless it’s probably a class to make you look at life differently. For instance, an Elementary Education major’s  curriculum guide requires a current student to take African American Studies as a freshmen. This class has nothing to do with the chosen major but it will show individuals enrolled in this course so many different things they can use when they start their career. Socially, college has been a major help due to the fact that most freshmen are easily intimidated and shy when they begin college. College professors assign group assignments and various other group activities to help them out. Socializing with peers as well as children, who will one day consume most of my time. Hands on, field experience, is actually for an Elementary Education major going to the classroom and talking with students and reading to them etc. Field experience lets you know if this is what you still want to do and if so it allows you to get hands on experience. In addition, going to college teaches you how to be responsible. For those who have time management issues and problems with procrastination coming to school will show you that if you do not have somewhat of a set schedule you will fail. As a college student you have to learn how to wash your own clothes if you did not already know how, you have to learn how to budget and the biggest thing coming to college you will learn fast is self-discipline. Self-discipline is knowing you have class in the morning so you do not go out with your friends the night before Daughtry3 because you know you are not going to make it to that eight o’ clock. That’s discipline yourself in college, having this practice will have you responsible enough to go out in the work force. Often times though, high school students feel as if college is not for them due to the previous struggles, failures and or experiences they have had in high school. â€Å"Failure is punished instead of seen as a learning opportunity. We think of college as a stepping-stone to success rather than a means to gain knowledge. College fails to empower us with the skills necessary to become productive members of Today’s global entrepreneurial economy.† (Stephens) His point of view is very understandable and realistic. Agreeing with Dale Stephens, Marty Nemko, says too that college is a waste of time.  In an article entitled â€Å"We send too many to college†, Nemko practically states that parents are wasting their money by sending their â€Å"bottom 40 percentile† child to college because they barely made it out of high school so why would you send them to college. â€Å"Even worse, most of those college dropouts leave college having learned little of practic al value and with devastated self-esteem†¦ those people rarely leave with a career path likely to lead to more than McWages.† (Nemko) Going against the idea that college is worth the money the two authors have very valid points. All in all, college is still worth the money and although a lot of current college students say that college is not worth the money, where are they? They are still in college because they know without some type of degree it is going to be difficult to be financially stable and career ready. Coming to college will teach them some responsibilities that they have probably never had to do. College is definitely worth the money. Daughtry 4 Works Cited Kirszner, Laurie G., and Stephen R. Mandell. Practical Argument. 2nd ed. Boston, NY: Print. Hardy, Marcelina. 7 Benefits of Having a College Degree. Yahoo Education. 2013. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.http://education.yahoo.net/articles/benefits_of_higher_education.htm.

Key conventions comprising works of writer and director christopher nolan

Key conventions comprising works of writer and director christopher nolan Chapter 1 Introduction I think audiences get too comfortable and familiar in todays movies. They believe everything theyre hearing and seeing. I like to shake that up. (The Auteurs, 2010) Christopher Nolan made his feature debut with Following in 1998 but it was the cult classic Memento, released in the autumn of 2000, which lead to his breakthrough in Hollywood. Despite only a handful of subsequent box office successes later, Nolan had soon established himself as both a blockbuster writer and director of the highest calibre. With Nolan rapidly constructing a key signature of his work that chronology would take a back seat to character with an identifiable undertone of film noir, is Christopher Nolan an auteur of the 21st century or merely a product from the likes of David Lynch and David Fincher? Consequently, this assignment will aim to answer this very question and will make a judgement on whether Christopher Nolan is in fact an auteur. In order to make a final judgement the dissertation will pursue the following procedure: Chapter three will aim to define what characteristics constitute an auteur, and will thus provide an informative analysis of the cinematic theory so that a context for the discussion can be established. This dissertation will benefit largely from the combination of both Alexandre Austrucs relatively elementary definition of auteurism as well as Andrew Sarris and John Caughies more modern, in-depth interpretation of the film theory. Employing approximately 50 years worth of academic analysis in regards to auteurism, a precise and thorough definition of an auteur will be produced, essential when drawing an accurate conclusion. Similarly, Chapter four will provide a brief summary of both the history of film noir and the neo-noir motion picture, informing the reader through an analysis and development of the genres codes and conventions. Joan Copjecs publication explores the origins of this classic period of Hollywood cinema and offers a perspective upon the films themselves, viewed in light of contemporary social and political concerns, and from new theoretical insights. She also analyses the re-emergence of noir cinema in recent years and how neo-noir remains a popular choice for the big film studios. Another publication which has been hugely beneficial during my research is that of Dr Frank Krutnik. Krutniks book combines both theoretical and historical research through the examination of individual films through a generic framework. In a lonely street is an extremely valuable text as it is especially successful in combining both historical research and textual analysis. It is important to note that Chapt er three and four of this dissertation are effectively the foundations before producing a smooth transition into the rise and success of writer and director Christopher Nolan. The vast bulk of the evidence gathered will be contained between Chapters five, six and seven. Chapter five will observe a number of Nolans cinematic trademarks, beginning with non-linear narratives. The International Society for the Study of Narrative states that narrative is the telling of a story or communication of a chain of events, fictive or real. Aspects of narrative include how the story is told, the context in which it is presented, and the construction of the story (Narrative, 2010). Therefore, in order to achieve an in-depth deconstruction of the non-linear narratives of Nolans first two motion pictures, Following and Memento, the aid of a narratological theory will be required whilst an analysis of all aspects of narrative must also be attributed. One narrative theory which has been specifically chosen is that of Tzvetan Todorov. Lacey (2000) argues that one name has become synonymous with that of Narratology over the years, Todorov, who simplified the concept of narrative while allowing a more complex interpretation of film texts with his theory of Equilibrium an d Disequilibrium. First proposed by Russian Formalists, there should be two individual narratological traditions: thematic and modal. According to research by Professor Meir Steinberg (Narrative, 2010) the former is largely limited to a semiotic formalization of the sequences of action told, while the latter examines the manner of their telling, stressing the importance of voice, point of view, transformation of the chronological order, rhythm and frequency. Numerous academics however, have insisted that thematic and modal Narratology should not be investigated separately as they both undoubtedly benefit one another especially when investigating the function and interest of narrative sequence and plot. Therefore, one must ensure that both a modal and thematic stance has been incorporated into the investigation of each text. The study will then progress on to observe the role of the morally dubious protagonist, a feature which dominates the majority of Nolans texts. For this purpose, Memento, The Prestige and Batman Begins have all been chosen for evaluation. This chapter will also undertake a vigorous breakdown of recognisable mise en scene traits and themes which will be identified throughout the volume of Christopher Nolans films. It will be this section of the study that will ensure a balanced debate as we look at the impact of other members within the production process such as Wally Pfister, a cinematographer, who Nolan has hired for all but one of his feature films. We also consider the influence of Chris brother, Jonathan, who has helped co-write several texts. The introduction to the conclusion, if you will, will help summarise and determine the significant influence the noir conventions that have been stated throughout this discussion have had on the development and originality of certain Nolan films. The dissertation will then conclude that despite the fact that Christopher Nolan, like many of his predecessors, has inherited a vast wealth of cinematic codes and conventions, his body of work, all be it relatively small, provides a unique stamp thus establishing Nolan as an auteur alongside the likes of Scorsese and Spielberg. Methodology. (3 pages) The following Firstly the information collected for this dissertation will be purely qualitative rather than quantitative as it focuses upon film theory through the form of textual analysis. The Secondary research will specifically involve the consultation of academic textbooks on the dissertation topic. This will be essential in developing prior knowledge on the subject and will allow discussion in order to reach the overall aim. The opinions of film academics and authors will be utilised in order to validate or oppose various issues raised within the dissertation. By using published or peer reviewed sources it increases the reliability of the information referenced and in turn the dissertation. The dissertation will also consist of narrative analysis of moving image. Stokes states that narrative analysis involves very close reading and is best conducted on a limited number of texts (2003, p. 69) which is why the dissertation particularly examines and deconstructs the works of a sole director and writer. However, there may also be a negative effect of investigating the work of one artist as Stoke (2003) claims there can become a danger of bias by steering away from a critical approach if you admire the work of the particular auteur. She states that one must go through a process of developing a critical distance and a way of watching which is detached and dispassionate. Therefore in order to ensure that the investigations results are as reliable as can be, one must aspire to analyse with complete objectivity. Whether or not this is entirely possible is another matter. Stokes (2003) also offers seven steps in order to conduct narrative analysis effectively. These guidelines will be extremely useful when deconstructing the narratives of Following, Memento and Batman Begins. Chapter 3 The Auteur Theory. More than a theory. In 1954 film critic and film director FranÃÆ'ois Truffaut coined the term auteurism, a concept which would later provoke much controversy and debate within the world of cinema. The politique des auteurs, later referred to as the auteur theory, originated in 1950s France as an abstract aesthetic rooted in the works of prestigious film journal cahiers du cinema. The fundamental works of this cinematic movement were Alexandre Austrucs Un camera stylo and Francois Truffauts Une certain tendance du cinema FranÃÆ'ais. Both of these concepts promoted the idea that as the author of a motion picture, the truly great directors must have a distinct visual style and identifiable themes which ingrain all of their work. (REFERENCE) Alexandre Astruc in his celebrated essay The Birth of the new avant-garde: the camera-stylo, announced that: The cinema is quite simply becoming a means of expression, just as all the other arts have been before it . . . After having been successively a fairground attraction, an amusement analogous to boulevard theatre, or the means of preserving the images of an era, it is gradually becoming a language. By language, I mean a form in which and by which an artist can express his thoughts, however abstract they may be, or translate his obsessions exactly as he does in the contemporary essay or novel (cited by Corrigan and River, 1999, p.159). Caughie (1988) states that as a term, Austrucs camera-stylo (camera pen) failed to take root, however the insistence on film as an individual self-expression, had a considerable polemical importance, forming the basis of Franca Truffauts cinema dauteurs. Traditionally, the reference to the auteur in French film criticism was associated with either the author who wrote the script, or, in the more general sense of the term, the artist who created the text. Before too long the latter sense came to replace the former and the title auteur was attributed to the artist whose personality had been written in the film. Inspired by the critics of cahiers du cinema, US film academic Andrew Sarris demanded a more detailed definition of the term la politique des auteurs and would later transform the notion of an auteur into an acclaimed cinematic theory. The auteur theory was never, in itself, a theory of the cinema, though its originators did not claim that it was. The writers of Cashiers du Cinema always spoke of la politique des auteurs. The translation of this into the auteur theory appears to be the responsibility of Andrew Sarris (Caughie, 1988, p.24). In his Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962, Sarris proposed three key traits in order to identify an auteur; the first being the technical competence of a director as a criterion of value. The second; the distinguishable personality of the director. Over a group of films, a director must exhibit certain recurring characteristics of style, which serve as his signature. The third premise refers to a more mystic interior meaning: Interior meaning is extrapolated from the tension between a directors personality and his material. This conception of interior meaning comes close to what Astruc defines as mise-en- scene, but not quite. It is not quite the vision of the world a director projects nor quite his attitude to life. It is ambiguous, in any literary sense, because part of it is imbedded in the stuff of cinema and cannot be rendered in non-cinematic terms. (Cited by Pearson, 1997) It is fairly evident when scrutinising the words of Andrew Sarris, that there are in fact numerous weaknesses in regards to his academic approach towards the auteur theory. The first two traits are fairly self explanatory, as he claims that a director mustnt simply be a master of his craft but that he must also present a style which is clearly distinguishable as his own. The weakness in Sarris approach however, lies in his third and final point, as he produces a vague description of what he defines as interior meaning. This definition is simply too unclear making it near impossible for other film academics to evaluate and measure an auteurs interior meaning. This point is indisputable as Sarris himself claims that his third principle is in fact ambiguous (Cited by Pearson, 1997) to say the least. Once Andrew Sarris had developed the notion of the auteur theory, he began to break the boundaries set when analysing auteurism in cinema. He took note of films within Hollywood and the commercial system where a large number of directors whose work, displayed a consistency of under-lying themes and a style which Caughie believes was unusual as it was difficult for a director to express personality and uniqueness within the industries constraints: In fact, the struggle between the desire for self-expression and the constraints of the industry could produce a tension in the films of the commercial cinema which was lacking in the art cinema, encouraging the auteurist critics to valorise Hollywood cinema above all else, finding there a treasure-trove of buried personalities, and, in the process, scandalizing established criticism. Uniqueness of personality, brash individuality, persistence of obsession and originality were given an evaluative power above that of stylistic smoothness or social seriousness (Caughie, 1988, p.10). Despite the director as author approach becoming increasingly popular in the 1960s, its weaknesses soon became apparent as it wasnt long until the notion of auteurism had been extended to include both producers and actors. The auteur theory had now developed to the extent where it would only accept rigorous analysis of films as oppose to unclear references to themes and style; With its emphasis on the importance of systematically analysing a body of texts, auteur-structuralism conceives of the author as a set of structures identifiable within a directors films. (Crofts, 1998, p. 315) Film critics would therefore now attempt to deconstruct the common themes and style of a given director rather than simply producing a vague interpretation. Caughie (1988) states that a weakness of the auteur theory lays in the fact that it requires a means in which to measure value. Sarris suggests films become valuable in so far as they reveal directorial personality. He therefore does precisely what s hould not be done: he uses individuality as a test for cultural value (Caughie, 1988, p.27). After utilising a number of interpretations in regards to the auteur theory, a single definition must be produced in order to validate the conclusion drawn at the end of this investigation. The definition which has been selected is that of John Caughies as it is both simplistic yet precise. Caughie, is his text Theories of Authorship, stipulates that an auteur is purely a valued member of the production team whose personality can be traced in a thematic and/or stylistic consistency over all (or almost all) of his/her films (Caughie, 1988). It is therefore fair to suggest that a personality, arguably a synonym for auteur, simply refers to a number of unique codes and conventions which have been persistently drawn upon for a large percentage of his or her (in this instance, a directors) work. Chapter 4 A History of Film Noir and its progression into the Neo Noir motion picture. More than a genre Paris, summer 1946. This moment marks an incredibly important event in cinema history, not for production but for exhibition. For this was the summer when, after the hiatus of the Second World War, French critics were again given the opportunity to view films from Hollywood. The films they saw prompted the naming and theorisation of a new phenomenon: film noir (Copjec, 1993). Silver (2004) simply defines classic film noir as one of the most influential movements in cinema history. This definition seems rather basic, however, despite five decades of attempted classification and debate its categorisation still remains problematic as it is marked by what Krutnik (1991) coined as a division between opposing camps of theorists and historians. Perhaps it is easier to suggest what characteristics constitute film noir rather than attempting to identify it wholly as genre or a period of history. Silver and Ursini (1998) in their book Film Noir Reader claim that the boundaries of this classic period stretch from John Hustons The Maltese Falcon (1941) to Orson Welles Touch of Evil (1958) and emerged from crime fiction in the United States during the Depression. The iconic visual style of film noir set in the 40s usually tends to be low key lighting with use of dark, dramatic shadowy patterns. This style is particularly noticeable in Carol Reeds The Third Man. In an analysis of the visual approach of Kiss Me Deadly, critic Alain Silver (1995, p.222) describes how cinematographic choices emphasize the storys themes and mood. In one scene, the characters, seen through a confusion of angular shapes, thus appear caught in a tangible vortex or enclosed in a trap. Copjec claims that this new form of cinema that emerged in 1940s America reflected the anxieties of a country entering a new era, an era perhaps dark and ominous. Film noir had therefore become the antithesis of Hollywoods glamour productions of the 30s. Literally meaning black film, film noir was first introduced by the French critic Nino Frank in 1946 as he noticed how dark and often black the settings and themes of these Hollywood films were (Wolfgang, 2003). Unlike other forms of cinema, film noir has no elements that it can truly indentify as its own. Rather, film noir makes use of elements from other forms, most notably from the crime and detective genres, but often overlapping into thrillers, horror, and even science fiction (Copjec, 1993). The primary moods of classic film noir are melancholy, alienation, bleakness, disillusionment, disenchantment, pessimism, ambiguity, moral corruption, evil, guilt and paranoia (Wolfgang, 2003). Whereas much work has been published on classic film noirs, produced between 1940 and 1958, little criticism has been written about the newer films, produced between 1966 and 2010, defined as the neo-noir motion picture. For some there has been a tendency amongst film critics to exclusively use the term noir for the classic films of the 30s, 40s and 50s. Although in recent years, there has been an increasing flexibility in regards to the classification of noir, especially as far as a chronological broadening is concerned. Some film academics believe that the genre has expanded from pre-World War Two cinema to the modern day phenomenon of the Neo-noir motion picture. This therefore suggests that the label film noir now has over sixty years of film history behind it. The term Neo-Noir was first coined by Todd Erickson in the 1990s in his widely credited essay Kill Me Again: Movement becomes a Genre where he claimed that neo noir only became a genre in the 80s, when it emerged from its embryonic state in the sixties and seventies (Silver and Ursini, 1998). He also discusses the emergence of noir motifs in films subsequent to the canonical period and suggests studying them as a new genre. Contemporary film noir is a new genre of film. As such, it must carry the distinction of another name; a name that is cognizant of its rich noir heritage, yet one that distinguishes its influences and motivations from those of the bygone era (Silver and Ursini, 1998, p.321) Erickson expanded on his definition stating that Neo Noir encompasses films released after the classic period which fulfil central aspects of the genre but take other different generic approaches (Lee Horsley, Crime and Culture). These central aspects of iconography, to which Erickson refers, a re: The visual style, in terms of cinematography with the use of symbolic lighting on certain characters to portray a particular characteristic. Academic David Watt (2002) highlights these codes and conventions within a framework of David Finchers Fight Club. Watt argues that Fincher has accomplished a particular style of lighting through the relationship between the central characters. In various scenes, Jack is in the foreground of the shot lit in high key with Tyler in the background hidden by shadows, thus representing that Tyler is hiding something from Jack (Watt, 2002). Another piece of iconography within the narrative structure is the common use of flashbacks in film noir where the protagonist will narrate their own story. Watt states that Fight Club fulfils this narrative device and plays on it through creating a flashback from another flashback, setting the film further back and expanding on the convention (Watt, 2002). The third and final key element of film noir is the i nclusion of certain Character types who the audience recognise as a recurrent motif of the genre. For example, perhaps the most identifiable character type in film noir is that of the anti hero, a convention that will be discussed in greater detail later in this study. Watt proclaims in his dissection of Finchers Neo Noir Blockbuster that the anti hero: Poses as the central character but does not follow the rules of society in the diegesis and contrasts heavily to the typical high concept hero. Fight Club immediately introduces the audience to the anti hero through a typical film noir convention of the introductory close up. Fincher has taken this convention to its extreme though and begins the film from literally inside the protagonists brain and then spirals out, disorientating the audience as they are forced to identify with this nameless character. Jack acts as the anti hero but his traits of the character type are expanded and again, took to their ultimate extreme. He does not trust anyone and is a loner, so much so that his name is never clearly identified and he is only recognised as Jack through the narrative voice over of I am Jacks wasted life (2002). The similarities between both the protagonist in Fight Club and Christopher Nolans Memento will be hugely evident when we analyse Nolans use of the anti-hero in his own Neo Noir epic. If we return briefly to the genre itself, many of the Neo-Noir films, especially of those created in the 70s and 80s, including for example Chinatown released in 1974, are what Lacey (2001) considers as pastiches that knowingly, and fondly, recreate the style of earlier noir cinema albeit in colour and with a modern sensibility. These films express a retro and nostalgic avoidance of contemporary experience with the intention of escaping from contemporary issues (cited by Wolfgang, 2003) Horsley (2002) corroborates this statement by arguing that in recent years one question is frequently raised in critical debate, pondering whether the fashionable trappings of neo-noir are themselves symptomatic of commercial postmodern nostalgia. He moves onto suggest that the sense that noir created in the 70s and 80s was a retro and nostalgic avoidance of contemporary experience has been encouraged by the often-cited essay, Postmodernism and Consumer Society, in which Frederic Jameson assigns to fi lm noir a central role in the vocabulary of commercialized postmodernism. However, Lacey (2001) claims that there are also numerous Neo Noir motion pictures which push the genre forward and avoid pastiche. One director whose films arguably fit this mould is Christopher Nolan, a writer and director whose work has instigated this very investigation. Leaving aside for the moment the matter of nostalgic pastiche it could be argued that Neo noir is not so much a genre of film but rather an identifiable visual style which has been adopted by a large number of contemporary film makers. As an aesthetic and ideological set of principles, the traditional conventions of noir are very visible in the works of modern auteurs: David Lynch, Michael Mann and David Fincher. However, there is still an obvious difference between both Film Noir and Neo noir as they each have their own underlying social and political context which undoubtedly affects a films perspective. As stated earlier, Film noir is very much a response to post war disillusionment and can be categorised into certain distinct phases, Neo noir on the other hand is far more difficult to isolate as the genre itself continues to evolve. Despite the 60s and 70s providing some telling illustrations of Neo noir, it was not until the early 80s that the genre gained widespread acceptance and credibility. This could arguably be down to the success of Ridley Scotts Blade Runner which would later be followed by other influential directors David Lynch (Blue Velvet, Mulholland Drive) and David Fincher (Seven, Fight Club). As Lee Horsley suggests: The contemporary refashioning of noir themes is a manifestation of the flexibility and responsiveness to social change that have characterised noir from its inception and of the continued vitality of the form. The transformations of the genre in neo-noir have helped to clarify some of the constant, recognisable elements of the noir vision, most importantly the moral ambivalence of the protagonist and his (or in neo-noir often her) ill-fated relationship with a wider society that itself is guilty of corruption and criminality. (Horsley, 2002) One director whose body of work notably contains recognisable elements of the noir vision is that of Christopher Nolan. Thanks to his unique, stylised, time-bending reformation of film noir conventions, Christopher Nolan has established himself as a creator of psychologically demanding films that defy categorization. When Nolan spoke to journalist Chris Roberts in October 2000 he was asked Have you always loved film noir?: Very much. Im a big fan, but interested in making those materials live for this time, this place. To create something new, whilst not abandoning the things I love about the genre. Which include the intrigue you can get out of that triangular relationship between three main characters. Who does what to whom is the driving force of both the narrative and the psychology. You judge them on their actions, rather than a lot of back-story and conversation. I just think it would be a marvellous thing for film-makers to have some of the narrative freedom that novelists have had for hundreds well, thousands of years. In other media, its always been accepted that you dont have to tell stories chronologically. In films, you have the flashback concept, but Stanley Kubrick and Nicolas Roeg were pioneering and pushing other boundaries in the Seventies, and it seems criminal to me not to keep using the freedoms they hard-earned. You should always be a little ahead of your time. I dont mean in a me dicinal, here-take-this-its- good-for-you way, but keeping people on their toes is a fun thing to do. Citizen Kane pushed things forward ambitiously, but in a real, instinctive, not gimmicky sense. And some of the aggressive, avant-garde devices Godard patented are accepted mainstream tricks now (Roberts, 2000). This insightful interview helps display some of Nolans key influences and motivations and yet the man himself remains in many respects an enigma. Before discussing the key conventions which comprise his work, lets begin with the man himself. Chapter 5 The Rise of Christopher Nolan More than a director Christopher Jonathan James Nolan was born in London on the 30th July 1970 as a child of a British Father and American Mother. Nolans introduction to film production began as early as seven when he began making war movies with his older brother using his fathers super 8mm camera and an assortment of male action figures. His passion for films increased with age whilst he is said to have been influenced to produce short science fiction films in the same vein of George Lucas space saga, Star Wars. After spending his childhood years residing in Chicago, Nolan returned to England to attend boarding school at Haileybury College, he then progressed to University College London where he studied literature. While an undergraduate, Nolan shot the surreal shorts Tarantella and Doodlebug with young actor and friend Jeremy Theobold starring in the lead for both films. Theobold would also take up the role in Nolans first feature film, Following, a no-budget black-and-white movie produced in London over a one year period. This ultra-low budget indie received wide acclaim receiving numerous awards such as the prestigious Rotterdam International Film Festivals Tiger Award and the Slamdance Black White Award. Despite Nolans success within Europe, it wasnt until he wrote and directed Memento (2000), a cult classic revenge story with its unique narrative structure, which held him up on the global stage. Hailed by critics, Nolans reputation almost changed overnight leading to him becoming a highly sought after talent. Returning in 2002 with Insomnia, a remake of Erik Skjoldbjaergs 1997 film of the same name, he proved he could direct some of the worlds top actors such as Al Pacino and Robin Williams. It was in 2005 however, with a reimagined take on a long-defunct film franchise, Batman, that propelled Nolan to the upper tier of Hollywood directors. His dark, brooding take on the avenging crusader was much more aligned with its original intention than any other subsequent incarnation. (Screenrush, 2010) With more recent box office successes, The Prestige (2006) and The Dark Knight (2008), Nolan has undoubtedly secured his reputation as a one of the top directors and writers working in Hollyw ood today. Now we know the man behind the lens, lets start dissecting the key conventions which comprise his work. We begin with Nolans use of the non-linear narrative. Chapter 6 Narrative More than a story. When Christopher Nolan released Memento in the autumn of 2000, few suspected the impact it would have on cinema goers worldwide and its significance not only on neo-noir as a genre, but also its effect on how audiences and critics perceive narrative within film. As a fragmented, non-linear narrative structure, Memento is a text which has received broad investigation in recent years. Its true meaning however, if in fact there is one, remains very much an enigma even a decade after its initial release. Nevertheless, the use of a non-linear narrative is nothing new, as stated earlier, as it has often been used in the past by noir directors to slowly reveal relationships among characters and circle the story back to a key precipitating event. What makes Memento special however is that its non-linear narrative structure puts the audience into the shoes of the protagonist. Through this device the viewers become detectives themselves. For the most part the audience struggle as much as Leonard does, creating a coherent narrative out of all the evidence they witness. Nolan gives the film noir genres tendency to confound the viewers expectations a conceptual twist by linking the flow of the narrative to the condition of the protagonist. (Wolfgang, 200 3) Memento would not be the first film Nolan would experiment with narrative structure as his first feature film, Following, applied this tool by using visual clues to aid the viewer in re-ordering the story chronology. This device would be something Nolan would return to in Memento, using the scratches on Leonards face as a marker-point for the time-line, rather than indicating the passing of day or night (Mottram, 2002, p.78). Christopher Nolan gives an insight into his trail of thought during the production process: When I had written the script, which seemed to work on the page, the feeling was if youre going to use this unconventional structure, such as the three time-lines in the Following, then my impulse at script stage was to teach the reader the structure, to do it very quickly with small scenes,

Characteristics Of Communicative Language Teaching English Language Essay

Characteristics Of Communicative Language Teaching English Language Essay The focus of every lesson or part of a lesson should be the performing of some action learning how to do something, to communicate something which he/she could not do before learning the lesson. Learner can get answer to his/her question i.e. why is he/she learning a particular lesson or any linguistic item. The learner understands the importance of learning the same as it is going to help him/her in day-today communication. So, here a learner understands and then acts. All these actions can be approached on a variety of different levels of sophistication, and bearing them in mind throughout the teaching/learning process. The Whole is more than the sum of its parts One of the most significant features of communication is that it is a dynamic and developing phenomenon. In other words it cannot easily be analyzed into component features without its nature being destroyed in the process. It is possible to identify various formal features of the way language is used communicatively and these can be studied individually. But the ability to handle these elements in isolation is no indication of ability to communicate. What is needed is the ability to deal with strings of sentences and ideas and in the oral modes processed in real life situations. Thus, a crucial feature of a communicative method is that it operates with stretches of language above the sentence level, and operates with real language in real situations. Interestingly, this principle may lead to procedures which are themselves either synthetic or analytic. A synthetic procedure would involve students in learning forms individually and then practicing how to combine them; an analytic procedure would introduce complete interactions of texts and focus for learning purposes on the way these are constructed. So, language used in the whole context is more useful than only studying the parts of it. The processes are as important as the forms A method which aims at developing the capacity of the learners to communicate in a second language will focus at repeating continuously until they are able to communicate well in a target language. So that the learners are able to practice the forms of the target language, i.e. English within a given framework. It simply means when the language is used for communication, the language forms are used for a process of communication. There are three such processes Information gap Communication is part and parcel of every human being. When two or more people are conversing in day-today life, one may know something which is not known to the other. The purpose of the communication is to bridge this information gap. In classroom situation pair work undertaken to complete an incomplete picture is the best example of transferring information as each member of the pair has a part of total information and attempts to convey it verbally to the other. Choice Another crucial feature of communication is that the learners have option, both in terms of what they will say and, more particularly, how they will say it. From the point of view of the speaker this means that s/he must choose the ideas which s/he wants to express with appropriate linguistic forms. Foreign language learners may face problems in making choice in this regard. Feed back This process is implicit in the above two processes. When two persons take part in an interaction, there is normally some aim behind communicating and in what way other person reacts is evaluated in terms of that aim. So, the strategies involved in this process are important. Learning by doing It is now widely accepted that education must be ultimately learner-centred more than the teacher-centered. The teacher may go on teach, but if the learner is not making any effort, then there is no point of teaching. The teacher must involve the learner and must be judged in terms of its effects on him/her. Another consequence is that learning becomes to a large extent the learners responsibility. The teacher helps, advises, and teaches, guides, the learners themselves have to learn. The learner has to be involved in the activity. Only by practicing, acting, actually doing, the learners can learn to communicate. Mistakes are not always a mistake While developing communicative ability of the learners, trivial mistakes of grammar or pronunciation does not matter as long as the learner gets his/her message across. In the initial stage of learning to communicate in a foreign language, mistakes are bound to happen. The learners commit mistakes because they are trying to do something which they have not been told or shown how to do, how to speak which they have not mastered. It means they are not really making mistakes. If the teacher corrects each and everything at every level, the learners may lose their confidence of using the language for communication. 3.6.4 Principles of Communicative Language Teaching Richards (2006) summarizes the following principles of CLT: Authentic language in real context should be introduced in the classroom whenever possible. It is the language used for day-today communication or functional purpose. By teaching language, learner should be able to make out speakers or writers intention. So that they will be communicatively competent. There should be connectivity among all the language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing together since they are regularly used in real life. The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study. Hence, attention should be given to teaching language for communication. One function may have different linguistic forms. As the language is taught for the functional purpose, a variety of linguistic forms are presented together. Students have to learn language properties i.e. cohesion and coherence which are helpful to combine sentences together. It is essential for them as they work with language at the discourse or super sentential (above sentence) level. In CLT, games, role plays, group work, pair work, etc. play an important role as they have certain feature in common to learn language effectively. Errors are tolerated and treated as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills. Proper situations should be created by the teacher so as to promote communication in the classroom. The social contexts of the communicative situations are essential for giving meaning to the utterances. The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from the functions, situational context and the role of the interlocutors. 3.6.5 Communicative Ability and Communicative Competence For effective communication one must have ability to communicate properly and have communicative competence. According to H. G. Widdowson, communicative abilities are those skills in which the system is realized as use. Communicative abilities embrace linguistic skills but not the reverse. Communicative abilities are ways of creating or recreating discourse in different modes. (Widdowson, 1978. 67) These opinions about communicative abilities suggest that these are the abilities which involve linguistic as well as other skills essential for conversation, communication or discourse to take place. On the other hand communicative competence has been defined in various ways. According to Littlewood, communicative competence means, a degree of mastery of a very considerable range of linguistic and social skills which depend in part on the learners sensitivity to meaning and appropriacy in language and on his/her ability to develop effective strategies for communicating in the second language. (Littlewood, 1981.87) K. Johnson and K. Marlow say that communicative competence is the ability to be appropriate, to know the right thing to say at the right time. (Johnson and Morrow, 1981.2) International Encyclopedia of Education defines communicative competence as the effective use of language in social contexts. (The International Encyclopedia, 1985.834) According to Widdowson, communicative competency is the ability to produce sentences for communicative effect. (Widdowson, 1978.1) It is revealed from the above definitions that communicative competence is The ability to use language appropriately in a given social context. The ability to be appropriate to know the right thing at the right time. Linguistic competence plus an understanding of proper use of language in various contexts. Knowledge which is additional to linguistic competence. Ability to communicate something which is grammatical, proper, socially accepted, formally possible, fluent in a particular context. In this way communicative competence includes both grammatical knowledge and the ability to use this knowledge to perform different kinds of functions like enquiring, suggesting, greeting, denying, advising, reporting, apologizing, inviting and promising. 3.6.6 Dimension of Communicative Competence Grammatical Competence Sociolinguistic Competence Communicative Competence Strategic Competence Discourse Competence Fig No.3.3: Components of Communicative Competence Grammatical Competence Grammatical competence, which refers to Chomskys notion of linguistic competence, is indispensable for the practice of linguistic formation of the language. The focus is on suitable structure which helps the learners to use the language appropriately and freely. Sociolinguistic Competence Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role-relationships, the shared information of the participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction. Discourse Competence Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their inter-connectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Strategic Competence Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and re-direct communication. In CLT classrooms, the teachers need to create activities that would necessitate learners to practice well in the target language. 3.6.7 Classroom Activities in CLT There are various types of exercises and activities in communicative approach which help students to achieve the communicative competence, and engage learners in communication (Richards, 2001). Communicative activities play vital role in communicative language teaching. These activities are helpful for the teachers to broaden their repertoire of techniques and activities so as to enable the learners to communicate more effectively in foreign language. Communicative activities are purposeful and objective oriented. According to Littlewood, the communicative activities can be represented diagrammatically as follows. (Littlewood, 2003.86) Structural activities Pre-Communicative activities Quasi Communicative activities Functional Communicative activities Communicative activities Social interaction activities (This diagram is adopted from Littlewoods Communicative Language Teaching, P.86) In these two major categories, the first types (Pre-communicative activities) serve to prepare the learner for later communication. The two sub-categories of pre-communicative activities are: Structural activities: Focus is on the grammatical system and on ways in which linguistic items can be combined. Quasi- Communicative activities: Focus is on one or more typical conversation exchanges. Some resemble drills, but other is closer to dialogues. Drills and dialogues can be combined so as to provide a bridge from formal exercise to communicative use. Communicative Activities also have two sub-categories: Functional Communicative activities include such tasks as comparing sets of pictures, noting similarities and differences, working out continuously following directions and so on. In these activities learners must work towards a definite solution for a problem. Social interaction activities comprise exchange of words, converse with others, improvisations and debates. Here, teachers prepare learners about the varied social contexts in which they will need to perform outside the classroom using different social interaction activities. There is no clear dividing line in reality between these different categories and subcategories; they represent differences of emphasis and orientation rather than distinct divisions. E.g. cued dialogues can be undertaken both as pre-communicative activity and as communicative activity. Similarly it would be arbitrary if we try to specify how much attention must be paid to communicative function before an activity can be called quasi- communicative, or how significant social meaning must become before it falls into the social interaction sub category. This distinction depends on the varying orientation of individual learner. Difference between pre-communicative and communicative activities The following chart shows the difference between pre-communicative and communicative activities. Pre-communicative (non-communicative) activities Communicative activities A Aims to develop grammatical competence Aims to develop communicative competence B Focus on the product of isolated utterances. Focus on the appropriate selection of utterances for communication. C Practice of language patterns or elements Practice of total skill of communication. D Function is to prepare the learner for later communication. Function is to make the learner to actually communicate. E Learners have controlled practice. Learners use language creatively. F Teacher intervention No teacher intervention G Emphasis on form, not on context. Emphasis in on context, not on form. H One long item Variety of language items. I Examples: drilling, question answers, sentence patterns, etc. Examples: Role simulation, dramatization, group discussion, dialogue, debate, etc. 3.6.8 Learners/Teachers Role in Communicative Language Teaching In CLT classroom teachers play a vital role in teaching/learning process of English. Teachers select learning activities according to the interest of the learners and engage them in meaningful and authentic language use. There are various roles to be played by the teachers in order to facilitate the language learning process. According to Hedge (2000.63), a communicative classroom involves the teacher in setting up activities, organizing material resources, guiding students in group works, engaging contributions, monitoring activities, and diagnosing the further needs of students. Richards Rodgers (2001) also describes the roles of the teacher as: needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager. Similarly, Harmer (1991) as cited in Nunan and Land (1996) describes the roles of the teacher as: Controller, assessor, promoter, participant, resource, tutor and investigator. Of all these roles, Nunan and Lamb suggest that it is the teacher as organizer that is the most important and difficult from the perspective of classroom management. In order to perform all these roles effectively, teachers should be competent enough in all aspects of language teaching. In line with this, Hedge (2000.67) states that, teachers need to build competence and confidence in fulfilling these various roles and in-service training is necessary within institutions to ensure that, in any moves towards implementing communicative approaches in the classroom, teachers are properly supported. 3.6.9 Role and Relevance of CLT Concepts in Present Research Since the main aim of the present research is to investigate teachers and students difficulties in teaching/learning process of English language, and support the teachers with an in-service training programme by using Communicative Approach which is essential in an ESL (English as a second language) environment, it is noteworthy to furnish the role and relevance of CLT concepts in the present study. Language is an inevitable phenomenon which permeates the human life. Of all languages, English is the most important language for communication. Naturally, English has become the language of worldwide communication rather than a language of literature. Hence the prime need of the learners is not to know the theoretical knowledge of English but to have an ability to understand and be understood in that language. In the past it was sufficient to focus only on structural accuracy when learning a language was an entirely academic advantage and an obsession to acquire a new language. But in todays world, language teaching is no longer considered a luxury but an obvious need. The language teaching methods in the past were based on linguistic competence. The establishment of basic principles of CLT was a reaction in opposition to the previously prevailing language teaching methods. Communicative language teaching aims at developing and improving knowledge and skills that facilitate the learners to make their message effective and successful. The main goal of communication is the successful transmission of information, not the achievement of grammatical correctness. By widening the horizons with other kinds of competence, CLT initiated progressive and effective ways of teaching. CLT uses and teaches as it is used in every day real life. Students are given the notion of language as real, lived experience. Socio-linguistic, discourse and strategic competences are integral part of communicative language teaching. The use of CLT in the second language classroom is a means of changing the attitude of the students towards language learning as well as positively influencing their way of learning. Over-emphasis on grammatical correctness and fear of making grammatical mistakes has negative effects on students. Such as being stressed at class and experiencing sense of failure. CLT creates congenial atmosphere in the classroom in different ways: the teachers emphasise on fluency and correctness to learn the target language than correcting the structures and giving instructions on language rules or grammar (Mangubai etal, 2004.292) The focus of CLT is on success rather than failure. The students are encouraged to rely on their own ingenuity and performance skills namely their strategic competence when speaking. Its emphasis is on the learner. (Savignan cited in Magngubhai 2004, 292) The four basic components of communicative competence summarized by Hymes (as cited in Cook, 2003) are argued by some applied linguists as vague theoretical ideas which can hardly be put into practice. The applied linguists draw attention to the fact that ideas of appropriateness and correctness very much depend on the cultural norms of a particular society. They are in a way right in their argument. Language itself is an intrinsic part of culture. Hence, learning a language also implies learning a culture as well. CLT integrates socio-cultural context with language teaching programmes and thus aims at developing students sense of what is right and what is wrong in English. Linguists have pointed out, according to academic research that they have not found one single best method for all learners in all contexts and that no single method appears to be naturally superior to other methods. It is neither possible always nor appropriate to apply one and the same methodology to all learners whose objectives, environments and learning needs are varied and different. CLT is considered one of the best methods for use in the second language classroom for several reasons: One, it gives confidence to the students to learn the second language and use it as and when required. Two, CLT draws attention to the importance of socio cultural skills. Three, the learners are given the realistic idea of language and are provided with a sense of what is appropriate and right in a given culture. Four, the learners learn English language and English culture simultaneously. It is vital and imperative both for teachers and learners, living as they do in a globalized world, to adopt and maintain the effective methods of language teaching/learning offered by CLT. Constant migration of people has become part and parcel of todays globalized world. Hence, English teaching/learning has become inevitable for anyone intending to move onto other states/countries either for higher studies or better careers. In this context, it is necessary to consider the lag between the aspiration for better prospects in life and the existing situation of teaching/learning of English language in schools especially the municipal corporation schools. Hence, the present research study is undertaken to bridge this gap by finding ways and means to know the difficulties of teachers and learners and develop a methodology that will enable them to improve the standards of teaching/learning process of English at school level. 3.7 Procedure of the Test to the Students A total number of 200 students from class VIII and IX standard of various Municipal Corporation Schools were gathered in one of the municipal schools in two spells and the tests on four language skills were given, data was collected, analysed and interpreted in the next chapter. 3. 8 Flowchart of the Research Design The research work during July 2008 to March 2011 was done as per the steps shown in the following flowchart. A Flow Chart Submission of the research report Selection of the problem DTP and binding of final computerized research report Review of related literature Formation of objectives Writing rough research reports and corrections in it Formation of hypothesis Suggestions for further research study Sample selection Findings, conclusions and recommendations Preparation of research tools Implementation of Pilot study Verification of Objectives Testing of hypothesis Data collection with the help of questionnaires and its analysis Analysis and interpretation data Pre-observation of the lessons and its analysis Data collection from students tests in all four language skills Implementation of the training programme for the teachers Post-observation of the teachers lessons Discussion with the teachers and Guidance to the teachers 3.9 Summary This chapter has discussed about the methods and procedures of the research study. It includes research design, the methodology employed for the teachers, procedure used for the research, the sampling design, participants, data collection, in-service training programme, its benefits, and communicative approach for the teachers and its relevance in the present research and analysis techniques. It has also discussed the procedure of the test for the learners. The next chapter includes analysis and interpretation of the data collected through the questionnaires from the teachers and observation of their lessons and also analysis and interpretation of the students tests in all four language skills questionnaire. Data was classified, analysed, interpreted using the statistical method and conclusions are drawn.